Key Terms

📖 Key Terms

Antarctic Treaty (1959) — International agreement signed by 12 nations (now 54 signatories) that bans military activity, nuclear testing, and territorial claims in Antarctica, and guarantees freedom of scientific research. The foundation of Antarctic governance.

Madrid Protocol (Protocol on Environmental Protection, 1991) — Amendment to the Antarctic Treaty System that designates Antarctica as a "natural reserve devoted to peace and science" and bans all mineral resource extraction until at least 2048. The most important piece of Antarctic environmental law.

CCAMLR — Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1982). The body that manages fishing in the Southern Ocean using an ecosystem-based approach. Has 25 member nations and agreed the Ross Sea MPA in 2016.

Arctic Council (1996) — The main intergovernmental forum for the 8 Arctic states. Produces recommendations on environmental protection and sustainable development but is NOT legally binding and cannot impose rules on member states.

permafrost — Ground that remains frozen for at least two consecutive years. Underlies approximately 15 million km² of the Northern Hemisphere. When it thaws, it releases methane (CH₄), a greenhouse gas 28× more powerful than CO₂ over 100 years.

albedo — The proportion of incoming solar radiation reflected by a surface. White ice/snow has a high albedo (~0.9) — reflecting ~90% of sunlight. Dark ocean water has a low albedo (~0.06) — absorbing ~94%. As ice melts, albedo drops, warming accelerates: the albedo-ice feedback.

Arctic amplification — The phenomenon by which the Arctic warms 2–4 times faster than the global average. Caused by the albedo-ice feedback loop, changes in atmospheric circulation, and the rapid warming of the Arctic Ocean once exposed.

positive feedback — A process in which the effects of change amplify the original cause, accelerating further change in the same direction. Both albedo loss and permafrost methane release are positive feedbacks on Arctic warming.

Marine Protected Area (MPA) — A defined ocean area where human activities (fishing, mining, some tourism) are restricted to protect ecosystems. The Ross Sea MPA (2016, 1.55 million km²) is the world's largest.

Northwest Passage — The sea route through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. First navigable without icebreaker in 2007. Saves approximately 9,000 km vs the Panama Canal route.

Northern Sea Route — The shipping route along the Russian Arctic coast, connecting Europe and East Asia via the Arctic Ocean. Saves approximately 6,000 km vs the Suez Canal. Russia charges transit fees and asserts sovereignty over it.

krill — Small shrimp-like crustaceans that form the basis of the Southern Ocean food web. Estimated total biomass of 500 million tonnes. Eaten by whales, penguins, seals and seabirds; targeted by commercial fishing for health supplements.

UNCLOS (UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982) — International treaty governing rights and responsibilities in the world's oceans. Gives coastal states an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 200 nautical miles, within which they have exclusive resource rights. Governs most Arctic territorial disputes.