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📋 Key Facts: Protein Synthesis

Transcription location: nucleus; translation location: ribosome (cytoplasm)

RNA polymerase unwinds DNA and reads the template strand 3'→5', building mRNA 5'→3'

RNA uses uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) — this is an exam classic

mRNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores; DNA stays in the nucleus

64 codons exist (4³); only 20 amino acids are needed → code is degenerate

AUG = start codon; UAA, UAG, UGA = stop codons

tRNA anticodon is complementary to the mRNA codon — both are RNA, so A-U and G-C pairing applies

Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds at the ribosome

Sickle cell mutation: GAG→GTG in DNA; GAG→GUG in mRNA codon; glutamic acid→valine

Substitution = one codon affected (at most); deletion/insertion = frameshift, all subsequent codons wrong

The genetic code is universal — same codons specify same amino acids across all life on Earth

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